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  • February 28, 2018
    IOP Science

    Greenhouse gas emissions of hydropower in the Mekong River Basin

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    The Mekong River Basin in Southeast Asia is undergoing extensive hydropower development, but the magnitudes of related greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) are not well known. This paper provides the first screening of GHG emissions of 141 existing and planned reservoirs in the basin, with a focus on atmospheric gross emissions through the reservoir water surface. The emissions were estimated using statistical models that are based on global emission measurements.

    Our findings indicate that, although the reservoir emissions per produced energy may be low in the Mekong, hydropower cannot be considered categorically as low-emission energy. The emissions can reach the emission levels from fossil fuels power plants, depending on the characteristics and location of the hydropower project. High emissions were related most strongly to low area-to-electricity ratios, large reservoir surface areas and high air temperature. Therefore, each hydropower project should be carefully analysed for its GHG emissions. It is also obvious that careful removal of vegetation and other easily degradable organicmatter from the inundated area of a reservoir is fundamental in minimizing GHG emissions from it.

    IOPScience​_2018​_GHG​-emissions​-of​-hydropower​-in​-the​-Mekong​-River​-Basin.pdf (2 MB)
  • October 31, 2017
    UNEP

    The Emissions Gap Report 2017: A UNEP synthesis report

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    The goal of the Paris Agreement on climate change, as agreed at the Conference of the Parties in 2015, is to keep global temperature rise this century to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. It also calls for efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

    The UN Environment Emissions Gap Report 2017 presents an assessment of current national mitigation efforts and the ambitions countries have presented in their Nationally Determined Contributions, which form the foundation of the Paris Agreement.

    Click here for more detial.

    EGR​_2017.pdf (3 MB)
  • October 31, 2017
    WB

    State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2017

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  • October 09, 2017
    UNESCAP

    Asia-Pacific Disaster Report 2017

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    Asia and the Pacific is the region most affected by natural disasters which hit hardest at the poorest countries and communities. And on present trends, as more migrants crowd into slums and shanty towns in Asia-Pacific cities, whole communities are likely to see their homes and livelihoods shattered or washed away by the wilder forces of nature.

    This edition of the Asia-Pacific Disaster Report, looks at the extent and impact of natural disasters across the region and how these intersect with poverty, inequality and the effects of violent conflict. But it also shows how scientific and other advances have increased the potential for building disaster resilience and ensuring that even in the most extreme circumstances people can survive disaster impacts and rebuild their communities and livelihoods.

    Disaster resilience is a key element of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Sustainable Development Goals are based on the premise of reaching absolutely everyone. When the drought is assessed, when the flood warnings are broadcast, when the tsunami siren sounds, the aim is to ‘leave no one behind’. If governments are to fulfil this ambition, and protect their most vulnerable people, they will need to ground national development strategies firmly in disaster resilience.

    Click here for more detial.

    Asia​-PacificDisasterReport2017Full.pdf (6 MB)
  • September 30, 2017
    Climate Focus

    How Improved Land Use Can Contribute to the 1.5°C Goal of the Paris Agreement

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    Climate Focus’ How Land Use Can Contribute to the 1.5°C Goal of the Paris Agreement develops a roadmap of action for the land-use sector to meet its necessary contribution to the Paris Agreement.

    The analysis relies on a modelling of land-sector development trajectories optimizing least-cost pathways, a bottom-up assessment of mitigation potentials, and a correction of potentials for political feasibility. The Global Biosphere Management Integrated Assessment Model, a partial-equilibrium model developed by the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, formed the basis of our modelling. We determined the 40 countries with the highest technical mitigation potential and assessed the feasibility of mitigation action based on their political will and ability to realize this potential. Finally, we outlined 10 priority actions to reduce the land-use sector’s contribution to global warming. The actions range from avoided deforestation, restoration of forests, to diet shifts and reduced food waste.

    Click here for more detail.

    CIFF Report.pdf (6 MB)
  • September 27, 2017
    UNEA

    Towards a pollution-free planet: Background report

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    Pollution today is pervasive and persistent. While the world has achieved significant economic growth over the past few decades, it has been accompanied by large amounts of pollution, with significant impacts on human health and ecosystems and the ways in which some of the major Earth system processes, such as the climate, are functioning. This report describes the pollution challenge, explores what is already being done to address pollution, and proposes 50 focused and actionable interventions to address pollution in all its forms. The report is a call to act towards a pollution-free planet.

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    UNEA​_towardspollution​_long version​_Web.pdf (5 MB)
  • August 31, 2017
    Frankfurt School-UNEP Collaborating Centre

    Climate Metrics for Debt and Equity Portfolios: A Framework for Analysis

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    The Paris Agreement requires significantly increased efforts to reduce emissions in the short term and net zero emissions by the second half of the century. To meet the investment needs in green technologies and other emission reduction measures, both public and private financing is required at scale and needs to be applied in a mutually enhancing way. The transformation will include alternative sources of financing since long-term loans becomes scare after the financial crisis.  For the success of the transformation, it is therefore important that investments are compatible with long-term climate protection scenarios.

    The report contributes by providing a conceptual framework of mapping climate metrics. The conceptual framework includes an inventory of existing metrics and classifies them according to two dimensions. As such, it helps to detect what kind of additional climate metrics are still required. Thus it is extending the notion about key design principles for climate metrics. In addition, the report contributes to that debate whether the influence of equity investors on ecological business strategy is bigger than the influence of debt investors as it develops a framework to reflect the consequences of the different positions. The report provides a numerical illustration of a number of the design characteristics that have been introduced and also includes a dynamic perspective in the light of the debate whether to account for debt and equity in a different way. The application of the framework to five hypothetical portfolios supports that equity and debt should not be treated fundamentally different.

    seimetrics201709finalreport.pdf (1 MB)
  • July 31, 2017
    ADB

    Climate Change Operational Framework 2017–2030: Enhanced Actions for Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate-Resilient Development

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    This framework provides direction for enhancing resilience and supporting climate adaptation and mitigation actions in ADB operations and business processes.

    The Climate Change Operational Framework 2017–2030 positions ADB to facilitate, collaboratively and proactively, a regional shift toward a low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development path. The operational framework provides guidance across all ADB sector and thematic groups to strengthen climate actions, operationalizing ADB’s commitment to provide at least $6 billion per year in climate change financing from its own resources by 2020. It outlines actions and the institutional measures to be implemented to enable ADB to meet the climate needs of its developing members.

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    ccof​-2017​-2030.pdf (527 KB)
  • June 30, 2017
    ADB

    A Region at Risk: The Human Dimensions of Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific

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    Recent regional climate change projections have consequences for human systems, particularly for developing countries in Asia and the Pacific.

    Asia and the Pacific continues to be exposed to climate change impacts. Home to the majority of the world’s poor, the population of the region is particularly vulnerable to those impacts. Unabated warming could largely diminish previous achievements of economic development and improvements, putting the future of the region at risk.

    The report discusses the most recent projections pertaining to climate change and climate change impacts in Asia and the Pacific, and the consequences of these changes to human systems, particularly for developing countries. It also highlights gaps in the existing knowledge and identifies avenues for continued research.

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    region​-risk​-climate​-change.pdf (4 MB)
  • May 11, 2017
    UNEP

    Green Technology Choices: The Environmental and Resource Implications of Low-Carbon Technologies

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    Big wins for human health, natural resources in switch to energy efficiency:

    - Low-carbon technologies aid clean air, save water and cut land use
    - 25 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions and 17 million tonnes of particulates a year could be avoided through low-carbon and energy efficiency technologies

    report​_green​_technology​_choices​-final​-2​_web​_090517.pdf (5 MB)
  • April 30, 2017
    ADB

    Risk Financing for Rural Climate Resilience in the Greater Mekong Subregion

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    This report presents the findings of a climate risk financing study conducted by the GMS Core Environment Program in 28 rural communities in Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and Viet Nam. It provides an overview of the frequency and severity of climate-related disasters for the communities, the impact of these on rural livelihoods, and how local people currently manage climate risks. The report also explores what climate risk financing strategies could be applied in such communities, including the potential costs and benefits.

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    risk​-financing​-rural​-climate​-resilience​-gms.pdf (4 MB)
  • April 30, 2017
    WB

    Results-Based Climate Finance in Practice: Delivering Climate Finance for Low-Carbon Development

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    Results-based financing is a well-established financing modality in the health and education sectors but it is still in an early stage of deployment in the area of climate change. This report reviews 74 results-based climate financing (RBCF) programs implemented in developing countries with an objective to: assess the characteristics and overall volume of funding flowing through RBCF programs, describe the various approaches to designing and implementing RBCF programs, and compare practical experiences with applying RBCF with the existing theory and literature. The report finds that RBCF can: facilitate carbon pricing and market building, support host countries' policy processes to achieve their NDCs, and leverage private sector activity and financing. RBCF can thus play a critical role in mobilizing the resources and supporting the policies and actions needed to achieve the objectives of the Paris Agreement.

    115053​-WP​-PUBLIC​-111p​-RBCFinPracticeFinalMay.pdf (2 MB)
  • March 31, 2017
    OECD

    Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Getting the Policies Right

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    Climate change will affect all types of infrastructure, including energy, transport and water. Rising temperatures, increased flood risk and other potential hazards will threaten the reliable and efficient operation of these networks, with potentially large economic and social impacts. Decisions made now about the design, location and operation of infrastructure will determine how resilient they will be to a changing climate.

    This paper provides a framework for action aimed at national policymakers in OECD countries to help them ensure new and existing infrastructure is resilient to climate change. It examines national governments’ action in OECD countries, and provides recent insights from professional and industry associations, development banks and other financial institutions on how to make infrastructure more resilient to climate change.

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    Climate​-resilient infrastructure ​- Getting the policies right.pdf (2 MB)
  • February 28, 2017
    ADB

    Economics of Climate Change Mitigation in Central and West Asia

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    This report provides an assessment of the costs, benefits, and investment opportunities for GHG abatement in the energy and transport sectors of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan.

    The ecological complexity of the Central and West Asian region gives way to diverse ecosystems with rich natural resources and hydrocarbon reserves; countries in this region are not only exposed to climate change risks, but there is growing recognition that their carbon-intensive economies necessitate reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in line with global efforts to mitigate climate change.

    The Economics of Climate Change in Central and West Asia, a regional technical assistance (TA) project of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) was designed to identify costs and opportunities in investments for low-carbon growth and climate resilience and low-carbon growth, under two components:

    • mitigation of climate change, which assessed the costs and benefits of GHG emission reduction measures and formulated low-carbon growth investment proposals for energy and transport in the most carbon-intensive countries in the region; and
    • adaptation to climate change, which assessed the costs and benefits of implementing adaptation measures to reduce the adverse effects of climate change on energy and water resources in the most vulnerable countries.
    economics​-climatechange​-cwa.pdf (2 MB)
  • January 31, 2017
    RECOFTC

    Social forestry and climate change in the ASEAN region

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    This report is the third in a series of reports on the status of social forestry and its role in climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region. An initial baseline report was published in 2011 providing a regional overview for 2010 and the fist situational analysis was published in 2014, presenting the status in 2013. This analysis report, the second status update, presents the most up-to-date government data available on forests, social forestry and climate change at national and regional levels, and identifis key changes and developments during the last three years. The main focus of the report is the eight ASEAN countries with government-supported social forestry programmes, namely Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam.

    Click here for more detail.

    social​_forestry​_and​_climate​_change​_in​_the​_asean​_region​_2017​_01​_en.pdf (4 MB)
  • January 12, 2017
    UNDP

    UNDP's Response to El Nino and La Nina: From recurring crisis to resilience

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    The 2015-2016 El Niño phenomenon has been one of the strongest on record, affecting deeply the lives and livelihoods of more than 60 million people across 40 countries. It has devastated crops and killed livestock, in some cases dried up water-sources in others caused massive flooding, driven up malnutrition rates, increased disease outbreaks and caused significant migration.

    Click here for more detail.

    El Niño UNDP Response.pdf (N/A)
  • December 31, 2016
    International Organization for Migration (IOM)

    Assessing the Climate Change Environmental Degradation and Migration Nexus in South Asia

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    South Asia, comprising eight countries including Bangladesh, Maldives and Nepal, is affected by a range of natural disasters including floods, glacial lake outburst floods, storm surges, droughts, cyclones and heavy precipitation. These disasters take a huge toll as they displace thousands of people every year. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has predicted that slow-onset and sudden-onset disasters will increase in severity and frequency, threatening lives and livelihoods across the region. To provide evidence to this issue and assess these trends, the International Organization for Migration has produced an assessment study on climate change, environmental degradation and migration in South Asia. The study contains a review of literature and policies, as well as findings from field research conducted in Bangladesh, Maldives and Nepal. To ensure that climate migration is comprehensively addressed, the study also contains model plans of action ? developed after a consultative process at the national level ? that can be implemented.

    environmental​_degradation​_nexus​_in​_south​_asia.pdf (12 MB)
  • December 31, 2016
    FAO

    Strategic Work of FAO to Increase the Resilience of Livelihoods

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    Together with its partners, FAO works to increase the resilience of agricultural livelihoods at risk of disasters and crises. People with resilient livelihoods are better able to withstand damage, recover and adapt when disasters cannot be avoided. The increasing frequency and intensity of disasters caused by climate change reinforces the urgency to build the resilience of agricultural livelihoods of vulnerable communities.

    Click here for more detail.

    a​-i6463e.pdf (8 MB)
  • December 06, 2016
    UNDP

    Delivering Sustainable Energy in a Changing Climate: Strategy Note on Sustainable Energy

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    UNDP's Energy Strategy, 2017-2021 

    UNDP’s Sustainable Energy Strategy Note, 2017-2021: Delivering Sustainable Energy in a Changing Climate articulates – for the first time – UNDP’s vision, mission, approach, guiding principles, and focus in the area of sustainable energy. It also highlights the critical role that sustainable energy plays in advancing major outcomes from post-2015 global processes including the SDGs, the Paris Agreement, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the New Urban Agenda.

    Click here for more detail.

    UNDP Energy Strategy 2017​-2021.pdf (3 MB)
  • November 30, 2016
    CIFOR

    CIFOR Strategy 2016 – 2025: Stepping up to the new climate and development agenda

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    Since CIFOR last presented a 10-year strategy in 2008, we find ourselves in a world with continually evolving development and environment challenges. Millions of hectares of tropical forests have been converted to agriculture, degraded landscapes amount to nearly 2 billion hectares, and inequality has grown in countries around the world. Yet, there is reason to be optimistic: forest expansion and restoration are gaining ground, the rate of deforestation is slowing, and awareness of the importance of forests is spreading among governments, corporations and the global public.

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    CIFORStrategy2016.pdf (3 MB)
  • November 30, 2016
    FAO

    The State of Food and Agriculture 2016 (SOFA): Climate change, agriculture and food security

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    The 2016 SOFA report presents evidence on today and tomorrow’s impact of climate change on agriculture and food systems. The report assesses the options to make agriculture and food systems resilient to climate change impacts, while minimizing environmental impacts. It shows that making agriculture and food systems sustainable is both economically and technically feasible. However barriers to the adoption of appropriate technologies and management practices will have to be lowered, especially for smallholder farmers and women farmers amongst them. Likewise, an overhaul is needed of agricultural and food policies to shift incentives in favour of investments, worldwide, in sustainable technologies and practices.

    Click here to more detail.

    a​-i6030e​_3.pdf (6 MB)
  • November 30, 2016
    ADB

    Nature-Based Solutions for Building Resilience in Towns and Cities: Case Studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion

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    Green infrastructure can play a significant role in offsetting losses from climate-related disasters and contribute to building resilience through rehabilitation and expansion of natural ecosystems within built areas.

    Urban populations are projected to increase from 54% to 66% of the global population by 2050, with close to 90% of the increase concentrated in Asia and Africa. Cities and towns—a growing source of greenhouse gas emissions—will need to address challenges posed by climate change. A nature-based approach in identifying climate change vulnerabilities and developing relevant adaptation options was conducted in three towns of the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS).

    Working with local governments, nongovernment organizations, women’s groups, and professional associations, town-wide adaptation measures were defined by overlaying climate change projections on town plans and zoning schemes for strategic infrastructure. This publication captures valuable experience and lessons from the project.

    nature​-based​-solutions.pdf (6 MB)
  • November 01, 2016
    UNDP

    Adaptive Farms, Resilient Tables: Building secure food systems and celebrating distinct culinary traditions in a world of climate uncertainty

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    As the world gets hotter and rainfall more erratic, the type and availability of ingredients for daily meals are changing. 

    With support from the Government of Canada and the Global Environment Facility’s Least Developed Countries Fund, the Canada-UNDP Climate Change Adaptation Facility (CCAF) has been supporting six least developed countries and small island developing states (Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Haiti, Mali, Niger and Sudan) to strengthen climate resilience and enhance food security. 

    Click here for more detail.

    CCAF​-Cookbook ​-FinalDraft​-29Oct.pdf (10 MB)
  • October 31, 2016
    GIZ

    Advancing nationally determined contributions (NDCs) through climate-friendly refrigeration and air-conditioning

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     At the 28th Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol (MP) in October 2016 in Kigali, parties agreed to phase down hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions over the next three decades, thereby building a fundamental pillar to achieving the ultimate goal set out in the Paris Agreement about a year earlier. According to an analysis by G. Velders et al (2016), the Kigali Amendment will avoid nearly 90 per cent of the temperature increase that HFCs could have caused.

    The following guidance assists policymakers to design national mitigation strategies for their refrigeration, air conditioning and foam (RAC&F) sector to meet the increasing ambition levels expected in revised NDCs. By aligning efforts taken under the two relevant international regimes, the UNFCCC and the Montreal Protocol, the RAC&F sector can make a significant contribution towards reaching the 2°C target, or even better, the enhanced 1,5°C target.

    giz​_2016​_advancing​_ndcs​_through​_climate​_friendly​_refrigeration.pdf (2 MB)
  • October 31, 2016
    German Development Institute (DIE)

    Green Finance: Actors, challenges and policy recommendations

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    Green finance represents a positive shift in the global economy’s transition to sustainability through the financing of public and private green investments and public policies that support green initiatives. Two main tasks of green finance are to internalise environmental externalities and to reduce risk perceptions in order to encourage investments that provide environmental benefits.

    The major actors driving the development of green finance include banks, institutional investors and international financial institutions as well as central banks and financial regulators. Some of these actors implement policy and regulatory measures for different asset classes to support the greening of the financial system, such as priority-lending requirements, below-market-rate finance via interest-rate subsidies or preferential central bank refinancing opportunities. Although estimations of the actual financing needs for green investments vary significantly between different sources, public budgets will fall far short of the required funding. For this reason, a large amount of private capital is needed.

    However, mobilising capital for green investments has been limited due to several microeconomic challenges such as problems in internalising environmental externalities, information asymmetry, inadequate analytical capacity and lack of clarity in the definition of “green”. There are maturity mismatches between long-term green investments and the relatively short-term time horizons of savers and – even more important – investors. In addition, financial and environmental policy approaches have often not been coordinated. Moreover, many governments do not clearly signal how and to what extent they promote the green transition.

    In order to increase the flow of private capital for green investment, the following measures are crucial. First, it is necessary to design an enabling environment facilitating green finance, including the business climate, rule of law and investment regime. Second, the definition of green finance needs to be more transparent. Third, standards and rules for disclosure would promote developing green finance assets. For all asset classes – bank credits, bonds and secured assets – voluntary principles and guidelines for green finance need to be implemented and monitored. Fourth, because voluntary guidelines may not be sufficient, they need to be complemented by financial and regulatory incentives. Fifth, financial and environmental policies as well as regulatory policies should be better coordinated, as has happened in China.

    DIE​_Green Finance​_Actors, Challenges, Policy Recommendations.pdf (1 MB)
  • September 30, 2016
    ADB

    ADB - Disaster Risk in Asia and the Pacific: Assessment, Management and Finance

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    This report summarizes the proceedings of 3 events: the ADB-OECD Forum on Disaster Risk Financing, and the Global Seminar on Disaster Risk Financing in September 2015, and the Asian Forum of Insurance Regulators Roundtable in April 2016.

    Click here for detial report.

     

    Source: ADB

    disaster​-risk​-asia​-and​-pacific.pdf (1 MB)
  • September 14, 2016
    ADB

    Asian Development Outlook 2016 Update: Meeting the Low-Carbon Growth Challenge

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    Growth has held up in developing Asia despite a difficult external environment. The region is expected to grow steadily at 5.7% in 2016 and 2017, the forecasts in this Update unchanged from Asian Development Outlook 2016.

    Follow the link for more detial.

    ado2016​-update.pdf (6 MB) ado2016​-update​-highlights.pdf (793 KB)
  • July 24, 2016
    Government of Cambodia

    Promoting Private Sector Contribution to the Climate Change Response in Cambodia

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    The role of the private sector in climate finance will become increasingly important as the country develops. This report presents results of a study on “Promoting private sector contribution to the climate change response in Cambodia” was conducted at the request of the Department of Climate Change (DCC), General Secretariat of the National Council for Sustainable Development (GSSD) with support from the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance programme (CCCA).

    Promoting Private Sector Contributions to the Climate Change Response in Cambodia.pdf (3 MB)
  • June 30, 2016
    MoE - Government of Cambodia

    Understanding Public Perceptions of Climate Change in Cambodia

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    This Ministry of Environment report presents results from a study that identified and evaluated changes in knowledge, attitudes and practices of the public relating to climate change.

    Understanding Public Perceptions to Climate Change in Cambodia.pdf (9 MB)
  • June 30, 2016
    Climate Focus

    Fostering Climate Action through Trade-Related Policy Instruments Final report: Delivery strategies and support tools

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  • June 16, 2016
    Ke Ai Advancing Research Evolving Science

    Approaches to low carbon development in China and India

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    Low carbon development has gained policy prominence and is a concern of both environment and development policy globally and in China and India. This paper discusses the role of China and India as important global actors in light of development imperatives in the two countries. The article then looks at emerging approaches in the two countries related to financing, science, technology & innovation policy, and sub-national actions. The objective is to review efforts in China and India for contributing to learning experiences for other countries. The final section discussed the ways forward in terms of examining the role of China and India in terms of national policy strengthening as well as in global agenda setting. Implementation of sub-national initiatives in both countries faces challenges due to lack of adequate financing as well as knowledge such as greenhouse gas inventories and disaggregated resource and socio-economic assessments. Both India and China are making efforts in technology and innovation domains to set foot on a trajectory of low carbon development with varying degrees of success. In finance, both China and India have experimented with various instruments—the key difference is that China has taken the support of regulation more while India has leaned on to market based instruments. Both China and India are moving on an encouraging track regarding low carbon development with fairly well-designed domestic policies and consistent international engagement.

    1​-s2.0​-S167492781630034X​-main.pdf (300 KB)
  • June 14, 2016
    Sciences Po and IOM

    The State of Environmental Migration 2015 – A review of 2014

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    The State of Environmental Migration series gathers the expertise of researchers, students and professionals to provide an annual assessment of the changing nature and dynamics of environment- and climate-related migration throughout the world.

    state​_environmental​_migration​_2014​_0​_0.pdf (5 MB)
  • June 14, 2016
    UNDP

    Integrated Planning and Sustainable Development: Challenges and Opportunities

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    This Synthesis Report and the eight country studies on which it draws, have been prepared through the Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE), with funds from the European Commission. The report illustrates the many different sustainable development pathways that countries are pursuing in line with national priorities and contexts. Its country-based evidence and non-prescriptive findings for policymakers and practitioners highlight the need for integrated and coherent development policies, while illustrating a range of inclusive green economy solutions. As such, this report represents an important addition to the global community’s demand-driven resources for advancing the 2030 Agenda.

    Click here for more detail.

    PAGE​_Integrated​_Planning​_and​_SD​_SynthesisReport.pdf (3 MB)
  • April 30, 2016
    RECOFTC

    Community forestry-based climate change adaptation: A practitioner’s brief

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    In 2014, the USAID Climate Change Adaptation Project Preparation Facility for Asia and the Pacific(USAID Adapt Asia-Pacific ) teamed up with RECOFTC – The Center for People and Forests to establish ademonstration site in the Bishnupur community of Sarlahi district of Nepal, on planning, financing andimplementing community forestry-based climate change adaptation (CF-CCA)

    community​_forestry​_climate​_change​_adapatation​_brief​_2016​_05​_en.pdf (1 MB)
  • April 30, 2016
    RECOFTC

    Forests and climate change after Paris: An Asia-Pacific perspective

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    The 21st Conference of Parties (COP 21) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held in Paris, France, 30 November to 11 December 2015. COP 21 and the resulting Paris Agreement have been seen by many as a turning point in international climate negotiations. 

    forests​_and​_climate​_change​_after​_paris​_2016​_05​_en.pdf (4 MB)
  • April 30, 2016
    UNEP

    Green Finance and Developing Countries: Needs, Concerns and Innovations

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    Green finance is a strategy for financial sector and broader sustainable development that is relevant around the world. But the context differs considerably for different countries. Developing countries, notably those with underdeveloped financial systems, face particular challenges in financing national development priorities.

    Broadly, concern and action to align financing to sustainable development is concentrated in three areas:

    • Preventing the financing of illicit practices or profiting from weak enforcement.
    • Unlocking opportunities for green investment.
    • Exploring solutions to dilemmas and trade-offs.

    The paper reports out on the build out of developing country work following the global report, "The Financial System We Need“ launched at the IMF Annual Meetings in Lima in October 2015. In particular, the paper sets out some of the needs and concerns particular to developing countries, as well as innovations that have emerged to address some of these specific aspects. The paper highlights the importance developing country actors place on embedding green into a broader sustainable finance lens, the significance of international developments in greening the financial system given their dependence on foreign direct investment, and the evidence of and potential for leapfrogging in aligning their financial systems to sustainable development, for example through the deployment of fintech.

    Green​_Finance​_for​_Developing​_Countries​-1.pdf (2 MB)
  • February 29, 2016
    IGES

    Grid Emission Factors in Cambodia (2010 – 2012)

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    The IGES Capacity Building for the JCM, in cooperation with the National Council for Sustainable Development, decided to formulate emission factors of electricity systems for baseline in CDM projects as well as support data for the identification of reference scenario in the JCM projects for electricity systems in Cambodia, and to this end the IGES Capacity Building for the JCM held expert consultation meetings with electricity relevant authorities and companies in Cambodia. This report presents a summary of the results of the above activities.

    Click here for more detail.

    GEF​-Cambodia​_2010​-2012.pdf (491 KB)
  • January 14, 2016
    Ministry of Environment

    Cambodia Ministry of Environment: Climate Change Action Plan 2016 – 2018

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    The CCAP 2016 – 2018, developed under the overall coordination of the Ministry of Environment, countedwith the active participation of all its departments and with the invaluable guidance from National Council forSustainable Development. Their participation made the action plan more strategic, coherent and aligned bothwith the MoE’s programs, plans and policies, and with national development goals. The suggestions andcomments received from peer reviews and from numerous stakeholders provided further strategic inputs fordevelopment of the CCAP 2016 – 2018. A wide range of technical support was provided by several national andinternational climate change experts to the development of the CCAP.

    climate change action plan for moe 2016​-2018​-en​-final​-new.pdf (2 MB)
  • January 11, 2016
    Asian Development Bank

    Southeast Asia and the Economics of Global Climate Stabilization

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    This ADB study focuses on ?ve countries of Southeast Asia that collectively account for 90% of regional GHG emissions inrecent years—Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. It applies two global dynamiceconomy–energy–environment models under an array of scenarios that re?ect potential regimes forregulating global GHG emissions through 2050. The modeling identi?es the potential economic costs of climate inaction for the region, how the countries can most e'ciently achieve GHG emission mitigation, and the consequences of mitigation, both in terms of bene?ts and costs. Drawing on the modeling results, the study analyzes climate-related policies and identi?es how further action can be taken to ensure low-carbon growth.

    ADB​-SEA Economics Global Climate Stabilization.pdf (7 MB)
  • December 31, 2015
    RECOFTC

    The role of community forestry in climate change adaptation in the ASEAN region

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    This paper summarizes key discussions from the 1st ASEAN-Swiss Partnership on Social Forestry and Climate Change (ASFCC) Learning Group workshop organized by RECOFTC – The Center for People and Forests in August 2015. The discussions highlight a number of ways community forestry (CF) can support local communities in adapting to climate change.

    Click here for more detail.

    the​_role​_of​_cf​_in​_climate​_change​_adaptation​_in​_asean​_2015​_english.pdf (2 MB)
  • November 29, 2015
    UNEP

    Green Energy Choices: The benefits, risks and trade-offs of low-carbon technologies for electricity production

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    Faced with an expected doubling in world demand for energy by 2050, massive investment will be needed to develop and install systems that can not only meet the energy needs of nine billion people but at the same time reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air pollution, toxicity, the impacts on land, water and other eco-systems. This investment need presents the perfect opportunity to select the best electricity generation technologies to meet these aims (Chapter 1). This report consists of this Technical Summary, and ten chapters constituting the full report. It identifies important environmental characteristics of low-carbon electricity generation technologies and provides decision makers with essential information on these characteristics. It assesses the impacts of building, operating and dismantling renewable power generation technologies such as hydropower, wind power, photovoltaics, and concentrated solar power on human health, ecosystems and natural resources. It also assesses the impacts of coal- and gas-fired power with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The impacts of these technologies are compared with those of modern coal and gas-fired power without CCS, but with state-of-the-art pollution control.

    ​-green​_energy​_choices​_full​_report​_english.pdf (41 MB)
  • October 31, 2015
    IGES

    The Paris Climate Agreement and Beyond: Linking Short-term Climate Actions to Long-term Goals

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    This report discusses possible ways to enhance the Parties’ contributions to climate mitigation and finance, and draws lessons for the international negotiations leading up to the Paris climate agreement. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of the dynamic nature of the climate regime, looking not only at the Paris climate agreement but also at the follow-up of the agreement (so-called “beyond”). This is critical to make the "nationally determined contribution" approach sufficiently effective to achieve the 2°C target. The report also covers the issues of market-based mechanisms and loss and damage as important components of a post-2020 climate regime.

    Click here for more detail.

    IGES​_the​-paris​_uni​_web.pdf (3 MB)
  • September 13, 2015
    Asian Development Bank

    Economic Analysis of Climate-Proofing Investment Projects

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    This ADB report describes the conduct of the cost-benefit analysis of climate proofing investment projects. An important message is that the presence of uncertainty about climate change does not invalidate the conduct of the economic analysis of investment projects, nor does it require a new type of economic analysis. However, the presence of uncertainty does require a different type of decision-making process in which technical and economic expertise combine to present decision makers with the best possible information on the economic efficiency of alternative designs of investment projects.

    economic​-analysis​-climate​-proofing​-projects.pdf (3 MB)
  • April 14, 2015
    GMS Core Environment Program

    Green Freight in the Greater Mekong Subregion

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    This brief summarizes lessons learned from green freight feasibility analyses conducted under the GMS Core Environment Program between 2010 and 2014. It presents five key messages that policymakers and practitioners need to be aware of while developing strategies and projects to improve road freight fuel efficiency in the GMS. It also provides an overview of the GMS Core Environment Program’s Green Freight Initiative.

    Green Freight in the GMS.pdf (1 MB)
  • April 14, 2015
    GMS Core Environment Program

    Ecosystem-based Approaches to Address Climate Change Challenges in the Greater Mekong Subregion

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    The brief summarizes the current state of GMS knowledge and experience on ecosystem-based approaches. It draws upon work of the GMS Core Environment Program and partner institutions, including findings from the regional workshop “Mainstreaming an Ecosystem-based Approach to Climate Change into Biodiversity Conservation Planning,” which took place 15–16 October 2013 in Ha Noi, Viet Nam.

    GMS EBA brief.pdf (1 MB)
  • March 31, 2015
    ASEAN

    Promotion of Climate Resilience for Food Security in ASEAN

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    Promotion of Climate Resilience for Food Security in ASEAN (Rice, Maize and Cassava)

    The study on Promotion of Climate Resilience for Food Security in ASEAN.pdf (9 MB)
  • March 26, 2015
    FAO

    Developing an Environmental Monitoring System to Strengthen Fisheries and Aquaculture Resilience and Improve Early Warning in the Lower Mekong Basin

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    These proceedings report the result of a sub-regional consultation on the existence and effectiveness of environmental monitoring systems for fisheries and aquaculture in the Lower Mekong basin. The document also includes a baseline assessment of environmental monitoring systems in Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, and the report of a regional workshop to discuss the assessments findings and future steps to improve an environmental monitoring and early warning system that will improve climate change adaptation in fisheries and aquaculture in the area.

    FAO​-Developing an Environmental Monitoring System.pdf (2 MB)
  • February 28, 2015
    Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, GGGI

    Looking for Green Jobs: The impact of green growth on employment

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    There are many claims and counter-claims about whether green growth creates or destroys jobs. But fully assessing the consequences of environmental policies for employment presents a considerable challenge, and at present it is not possible for policy-makers to assess conflicting claims about the quality and quantity of green jobs that have already been created, or may be created in the future. One approach would be to focus on changes in employment in industries that provide environmental goods and services. Another would be to count the jobs created when firms adopt technologies with less environmental impact and switch to less polluting inputs, regardless of their primary outputs. Both approaches can be helpful for assessing the direct impact on jobs and the scale of structural change required by the transition to green growth. But green policies also affect labour markets indirectly through supply chains and through changes in overall demand. The destruction of ‘brown jobs’ in polluting industries should also be taken into account. The consequences of green policies for labour markets working through macroeconomic channels – such as changes in labour productivity and the costs of employment – are often overlooked. This policy brief argues for a greater focus on these indirect channels, taking into account a country’s particular economic structure and labour market institutions. This is particularly important for comprehensively analysing the impact of green policies in developing countries.

    Looking​_for​_green​_jobs​_the​_impact​_of​_green​_growth​_on​_employment​_GGGI​_Grantham​_Research​_Institute​_on​_Climate​_Change​_on​_the​_Environment​_0.pdf (422 KB)
  • December 31, 2014
    Ministry of Mines and Energy

    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Mines and Energy Sectors 2015 – 2018

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    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Mines and Energy Sectors 2015 - 2018

    13. ccap​-mines and energy​-2015​-2018​-en​-final.pdf (20 MB)
  • December 31, 2014
    CIAT, CGIAR, CCAFS

    Towards climate resilience in agriculture for Southeast Asia: An overview for decision-makers

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    This sourcebook, and accompanying poster learning series, is aimed at policy makers, planners in government, local research administrators, civil society partners and researchers in Southeast Asia. Compiled and repackaged by Dr. Julian Gonsalves and a resource team, the Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) source book draws from a rich pool of literature from over 700 sources. The compilation provides succinct, relevant and timely information about climate challenges, and potential solutions from previously published work in a simplified or a shortened form from around the world. While the focus is on challenges specific to Southeast Asia, solutions may come from, or already have been tested elsewhere; it is for this reason that articles from around the world have been included, to demonstrate that adaptation efforts are already being implemented, and a wide range of approaches and strategies are available. This resource seeks to bridge the gap between what policy makers know, and what research shows can work on the ground to improve adaptation, increase productivity, enhance livelihoods, and contribute to sustainable development affected by climate change. The related poster series can be found here: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/71099.

    Towards climate resilience in agriculture for Southeast Asia.pdf (18 MB)
  • November 10, 2014
    OECD

    Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia

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    Southeast Asia’s booming economy offers tremendous growth potential, but also large and interlinked economic, social and environmental challenges. The region’s current growth model is based in large part on natural resource exploitation, exacerbating these challenges. This report provides evidence that, with the right policies and institutions, Southeast Asia can pursue green growth and thus sustain the natural capital and environmental services, including a stable climate, on which prosperity depends.

    Carried out in consultation with officials and researchers from across the region, Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia provides a framework for regional leaders to design their own solutions to move their countries towards green growth. While recognising the pressures that Southeast Asian economies face to increase growth, fight poverty and enhance well-being, the report acknowledges the links between all these dimensions and underscores the window of opportunity that the region has now to sustain its wealth of natural resources, lock-in resource-efficient and resilient infrastructure, attract investment, and create employment in the increasingly dynamic and competitive sectors of green technology and renewable energy.

    Some key policy recommendations are that these challenges can be met by scaling up existing attempts to strengthen governance and reform countries’ economic structure; mainstreaming green growth into national development plans and government processes; accounting for the essential ecosystem services provided by natural capital, ending open-access natural resource exploitation; and guiding the sustainable growth of cities to ensure well-being and prosperity.

    Click here for more detial.

    Towards Green Growth In Southeast Asia.pdf (2 MB)
  • November 06, 2014
    Asian Development Bank

    Climate Risk Management in ADB Projects

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    This ADB report features how ADB applies climate risk management approach to investment projects in Asia and the Pacific, which aims to reduce risks resulting from climate change.

    climate​-risk​-management​-adb​-projects.pdf (3 MB)
  • June 23, 2014
    Asian Development Bank

    ADB Environmental Issues, Climate Changes, and Energy Security in Developing Asia

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    This paper examines four environmental dimensions of energy security—climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality, and land-use change—and the environmental impact of various energy systems. Since all energy sources have an environmental impact, policymakers must begin to incorporate the cost of these negative consequences into energy prices.

    Environmental Issues, Climate Changes, and Energy Security in Developing Asia.pdf (208 KB)
  • June 14, 2014
    Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)

    Climate Risks, Regional Integration, and Sustainability in the Mekong Region

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    The Mekong region is not only rich in natural biodiversity and culturally diverse but also has one of the fastest growing regional economies in the world. Returns from economic growth have raised incomes and improved people’s well-being, but many social and economic challenges remain. It has proven difficult to effectively integrate social, economic, and environmental objectives in pursuing sustainability in the region. Rapid change and the regional interdependence across the Mekong countries and China’s Yunnan province has diverse consequences (SEI 2009). Looking back, there is both credit and blame; looking forward, both opportunities and threats.

    sumernet​_book​_climate​_risks​_regional​_integration​_sustainability​_mekong​_region.pdf (2 MB)
  • May 31, 2014
    ICEM

    Natural Systems and Climate Change Resilience in the Lower Mekong Basin

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    This report draws from the past decade of climate change and natural systems work in the Mekong region to summarise findings and lessons for small holder farms and landscape management.

    Click here for more detail.

    LMB Natural Systems Brief JCR final 24 March.pdf (2 MB)
  • May 28, 2014
    GMS Core Environment Program

    Climate Change and Rural Communities in the Greater Mekong Subregion: A Framework for Assessing Vulnerability and Adaptation Options

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    This report presents the methodology and lessons from a climate change adaptation study conducted by the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) Core Environment Program. The study yielded a framework and methodology for assessing climate vulnerability and adaptation options for rural communities in the GMS. It was conducted in biodiversity conservation corridors in Lao People's Democratic Republic, Thailand, and Viet Nam during 2011–2012. The report introduces the framework, describes how it was applied, major results, and makes recommendations for future improvement.

    Climate Change and Rural Communities in the GMS ​- A Framework for Assessing Vulnerability & Adaptation Options.pdf (3 MB)
  • May 27, 2014
    Asian Development Bank

    ADB and Climate Investment Funds: Innovation and Action on Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific

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    This document presents ADB’s experience in the development of CIF programs and highlights some of the innovative transformations anticipated or already achieved by ADB projects using CIF funding. In particular, this overview of ADB and CIF activities in the region shows that ADB continues to be committed to building the capacity of its DMCs to address climate change issues by delivering not only finance but also critical knowledge and technology, and by leveraging additional finance, particularly from the private sector.

    ADB​-climate​-investment​-funds​-2014.pdf (5 MB)
  • May 25, 2014
    Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Water Resources and Meteorology 2014 – 2018

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    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Water Resources and Meteorology 2014 - 2018

    ccap​-water resource meteorology​-2014​-2018​-en​-final.pdf (15 MB)
  • May 20, 2014
    Asian Development Bank

    The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific

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    This book is first in a series of a three-volume publication on the environments of the poor, and contains selected papers on Southeast Asia, East Asia, and the Pacific from a conference organized in 2010 by ADB, in cooperation with various development partners and think tank institutes in Asia. The book introduces a spatial approach to poverty, and argues that a triple win -- reducing poverty, protecting the environment, and responding to climate change -- is possible.

    environments​-poor​-southeast​-asia.pdf (3 MB)
  • April 30, 2014
    RECOFTC

    Current status of Social Forestry in climate change adaptation and mitigation in ASEAN region

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    This report covers eight ASEAN countries (Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia (particularly the state of Sabah), Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam). The report examines the current status of social forestry in climate mitigation and adaptation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and aims to update the Initial Baseline Assessment on Social Forestry and Climate Change published in 2010. Additionally, the paper seeks to facilitate information sharing within the region, and the continued development of policies and programmes through providing up-to-date information to all stakeholders. Covering eight countries in the ASEAN region, the research for the report was collected through desk-based research, reviews of national laws and policies, and technical reports.

    Click here for more detail.

    Situational Analysis Final web​_461.pdf (6 MB)
  • April 02, 2014
    National Committee for Disaster Management

    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Disaster Management Sectors 2014 – 2018

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    Cambodia Climate Change Action Plan for Disaster Management Sectors 2014 – 2018

    ccap​-disaster management​-2014​-2018​-en.pdf (13 MB)
  • March 31, 2014
    USAID, ICEM

    Mekong ARCC Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Study for the Lower Mekong Basin: Protected Areas Report

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    This protected areas report provides an outline of protected areas (PAs) and biodiversity in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB), and an overview of threats to PAs other than climate change, including land concessions, infrastructure development, illegal activities, and agriculture. The threats posed by climate change to PAs are then reviewed, followed by a series of case studies of climate change impacts, vulnerabilities, and adaptation options in four protected areas: 1) Nong Bong Kai Non Hunting Area – Thailand; 2) Nakai Nam Theun – Lao PDR; 3) Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary – Cambodia; and 4) U Minh Thuong National Park – Vietnam.

    Click here for more detail.

    mekong​_arcc​_theme​_report​_protected​-areas.pdf (2 MB)
  • January 28, 2014
    MDPI

    Carbon Stock Assessment Using Remote Sensing and Forest Inventory Data in Savannakhet, Lao PDR

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    Savannakhet Province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), is a small area that is connected to Thailand, other areas of Lao PDR, and Vietnam via road No. 9. This province has been increasingly affected by carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from the transport corridors that have been developed across the region. To determine the effect of the CO2 increases caused by deforestation and emissions, the total above-ground biomass (AGB) and carbon stocks for different land-cover types were assessed. This study estimated the AGB and carbon stocks (t/ha) of vegetation and soil using standard sampling techniques and allometric equations. Overall, 81 plots, each measuring 1600 m2, were established to represent samples from dry evergreen forest (DEF), mixed deciduous forest (MDF), dry dipterocarp forest (DDF), disturbed forest (DF), and paddy fields (PFi). In each plot, the diameter at breast height (DBH) and height (H) of the overstory trees were measured. Soil samples (composite n = 2) were collected at depths of 0–30 cm. Soil carbon was assessed using the soil depth, soil bulk density, and carbon content. Remote sensing (RS; Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image) was used for land-cover classification and development of the AGB estimation model. The relationships between the AGB and RS data (e.g., single TM band, various vegetation indices (VIs), and elevation) were investigated using a multiple linear regression analysis. The results of the total carbon stock assessments from the ground data showed that the MDF site had the highest value, followed by the DEF, DDF, DF, and PFi sites. The RS data showed that the MDF site had the highest area coverage, followed by the DDF, PFi, DF, and DEF sites. The results indicated significant relationships between the AGB and RS data. The strongest correlation was found for the PFi site, followed by the MDF, DDF, DEF, and DF sites.

    remotesensing​-06​-05452.pdf (1 MB)
  • November 30, 2013
    Friedrich Ebert Stiftung

    Green Growth Strategies in Asia: Drivers and Political Entry Points

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    Green Growth Strategies in Asia - Drivers and Political Entry Points:

    -Despite their relatively poor environmental performance in recent decades, manyAsian countries are beginning to develop green growth strategies.

    -These strategies utilize different entry points for promoting continued economicgrowth and employment generation, while improving living conditions and addressingthe imperatives of resource efficiency and environmental protection.

    The incentives and drivers vary across countries and depend on the respective developmentmodels, resource endowments, financial resources and technological capacities.

    -Success depends crucially on the development of a new, broader set of state capacities.These include not only capacities to develop and consistently enforce a robustset of environmental policies, but also to ensure their coherence with other policydomains, in particular innovation and industrial policies.

    -In order to scale-up these emerging initiatives into broader transition strategies,the development and further strengthening of corresponding political discoursesand societal coalitions is needed. Such strategies will have to consider the politicaleconomy of reforms, incorporate questions of social justice and address the interestsof key stakeholders.

    Green Growth Strategies in Asia.pdf (217 KB)
  • October 30, 2013
    National Climate Change Committee

    Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan 2014 – 2023

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    Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan 2014 – 2023

    cccsp​_2014​-2023​-en​-final.pdf (1 MB)
  • September 04, 2013
    Asian Development Bank

    Prospects for Carbon Capture and Storage in Southeast Asia

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    This ADB report was produced under the Technical Assistance Grant: Determining the Potential for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Southeast Asia (TA 7575-REG), and is focused on an assessment of the CCS potential in Thailand, Viet Nam, and specific regions of Indonesia (South Sumatra) and the Philippines (Calabarzon).

    ADB Carbon Capture Storage Southeast Asia 2013.pdf (3 MB)
  • August 27, 2013
    Asian Development Bank

    Climate Risks in the Mekong Delta-Ca Mau and Kien Giang Provinces of Viet Nam

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    This ADB report provides provincial and district policy makers with an understanding of the key areas of vulnerability and hotspots with regard to climate change in Viet Nam in the period up to 2050. The study identifies potential future climate conditions in the Mekong Delta region and assesses the effects of future climate scenarios on natural, social, and economic systems in the region.

    ADB climate​-risks​-mekong​-delta.pdf (6 MB)
  • June 30, 2013
    AfDB, OECD, UN and WB

    A Toolkit of Policy Options to Support Inclusive Green Growth

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    The non-prescriptive Inclusive Green Growth Toolkit developed by four International Organizations (IOs) - AfDB, OECD, UN, and WB - at the request of the G20 Development Working Group under the Mexican G20 Presidency in June 2012 and updated in July 2013 aims at providing policy-makers with:

    · A framework to help develop inclusive green growth strategies

    · An overview of some of the key tools that specifically address the challenges raised by making growth green and inclusive.

    · A brief discussion of knowledge sharing and capacity building challenges and solutions.

    The tools described in the toolkit are mostly classic, fairly well-known tools such as environmental fiscal reform and social protection instruments. What is new is that they are brought together and that they are all being assessed according to their economic, social, and environmental implications.

    IGG​-ToolkitAfDB​-OECD​-UN​-WB​-revised​_July​_2013.pdf (2 MB)
  • June 14, 2012
    IUCN

    Situation Analysis on Climate Change

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    Bangladesh and India share three major river systems: the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. Along with their tributaries, these rivers drain about 1.75 million sq km of land, with an average runoff of 1,200 cu km. The GBM system also supports over 620 million people. Thus, the need for cooperation on trans-boundary waters is crucial to the future well-being of these millions.

    Situation Analysis on Climate Change​_2012​_IUCN.pdf (2 MB)